August 2025

Volume 2, Number 1

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Exploring Police Procedural Justice in a Democracy: An Empirical Test among Police Cadets

Kevin Buchanan

Tarleton State University

Shun-Yung Kevin Wang

Tarleton State University

Abstract

Police legitimacy and procedural justice play important roles in democratic policing for their ultimate influence on police-citizen interactions.  Prior research pointed out a plausible model of procedural justice from “inside-out” in police departments, but not much is known in police academies designated to train and prepare cadets.  Built upon this framework, we used Taiwan police cadets survey data to examine mediating roles of cadets’ self-legitimacy and learning in the academy mediate the relationship between internal- and external- procedural justice, as well as explore the impacts of police career motivations (e.g., public service motivation) on the process.  Structural Equation Modeling was employed to analyze the data, and the findings largely supported our hypothesized impacts of public service motivation and the intervening factors of self-legitimacy and learning in the academy.  The present study contributed to theoretical development through testing the framework in a non-Western democracy and offered policy implications.

Keywords: procedural justice, self-legitimacy, public service motivation, police cadet

 

Introduction

Police legitimacy plays a critical role in democratic societies, shaping citizens’ willingness to comply with laws and cooperate with authorities (Tyler, 1990; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003). Central to this legitimacy is procedural justice (PJ), which emphasizes respectful treatment, fairness, and trust in decision-making processes (Mazerolle et al., 2013; Walters & Bolger, 2018). While PJ has been studied extensively in police-citizen interactions, more recent work highlights the importance of internal procedural justice (IPJ) within police organizations (Van Craen, 2016), suggesting that officers who experience fairness internally are more likely to treat the public fairly. A growing body of research proposes that self-legitimacy—officers’ belief in their rightful authority—is a key mediating factor in translating IPJ to external procedural justice (EPJ) (Nix & Wolfe, 2018; Chen et al., 2021). However, limited attention has been paid to this process within police academies, where legal socialization begins. This study examines the relationships among IPJ, self-legitimacy, cadets’ learning, and motivations, and their influence on EPJ among police cadets in Taiwan.

Literature Review

In the wake of public scrutiny and major events like the George Floyd incident, police legitimacy and training practices have faced renewed focus. Police academies serve as foundational spaces for cadets’ legal socialization and adoption of democratic policing principles. Historically, U.S. police training evolved from informal, skills-based models to more structured, community-oriented approaches (Walker, 1999; Chappell, 2008). Yet traditional methods like use-of-force training remain dominant, while procedural justice training is inconsistently applied (Sloan & Paoline, 2021). Cadets often acquire values through both formal instruction and informal interactions with instructors, echoing Bandura’s (1971) social learning theory.

Justice within Organizations

Organizational justice consists of distributive and procedural components (Greenberg, 1987). In policing, procedural fairness from supervisors fosters trust, rule adherence, and commitment to democratic practices (Bradford et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2019). Van Craen (2016) proposed an “inside-out” model where IPJ influences EPJ through mechanisms like moral alignment, job satisfaction, and trust. Empirical support shows that internal fairness enhances officers’ attitudes and behaviors toward the public (Kutnjak et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2024).

Self-legitimacy

Self-legitimacy refers to officers’ internal belief in their moral right to exercise authority (Bottoms & Tankebe, 2012; Tankebe, 2014). Officers who feel legitimate are more likely to practice procedural justice, avoid excessive force, and align with democratic values (Bradford & Quinton, 2014; Trinkner et al., 2019). Cadets develop self-legitimacy through organizational experiences, especially in structured environments like academies (Wu et al., 2017). Fair treatment from instructors has been positively linked to stronger self-legitimacy (Nix & Wolfe, 2017), though some findings remain inconclusive (Tankebe, 2019). Public service motivation (PubSM) also enhances self-legitimacy and learning, reinforcing cadets’ professional identity and ethical conduct (Perry & Hondeghem, 2008; Prysmakova & Vandenabeele, 2020).

Policing and Cadet Trainings in Democratic Taiwan

Taiwan’s centralized police system, overseen by the National Police Agency, offers two main academy tracks: Taiwan Police College (TPC) and Central Police University (CPU). Following democratization in the late 1980s, Taiwanese policing transitioned from authoritarian control to community-oriented service (Sun & Chu, 2006). Cadets receive both academic and field training, and learn organizational norms through hierarchical, structured environments. Although such centralization can stifle innovation, it also allows for coherent training and policy implementation. Prior research shows that internal procedural justice in Taiwan is linked to external fairness and moral alignment (Wu et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2021). Cadets’ motivations—ranging from public service to job stability—may influence how they internalize these values.

The Present Study

Based on reviewed literature and the framework of procedural justice in police organizations, we hypothesized that: 1) A higher level of procedural justice police cadets perceived in the academy leads to a higher tendency of exercising fair treatments towards the public; 2) self-legitimacy mediates the impact of police cadets’ perceived IPJ on their inclination to EPJ; 3) police cadets’ school learning mediates the impact of their perceived IPJ on inclination to EPJ; 4) police cadets’ motivations – public service motivation and instrumental motivation – affect their learning in academies, self-defined legitimacy, and EPJ.

Data collection and sample

Taiwan currently adopts a dual-track system to recruit police officers (Cao et al., 2016), and the “internal-track” offers education and training.  Taiwan Police College (TPC) is responsible for educating entry-level officers through its two-year associate degree program, while Central Police University (CPU) offers 4-year bachelor’s degree program and graduates police officers at management level.  A service academy model is adopted – cadets enjoy tuition waiver and free cost of living on campus, with an exchange of services upon graduation.  Besides offering academic degrees and trainings to police cadets, both institutions furnish various in-service trainings to police officers at all ranks.

In the present study, the data were collected from police cadets who committed 2-year associate degree at TPC between June and September of 2019.  A team of police researchers, including a faculty member from TPC, designed a survey instrument in English first and went through dual-translation process to ensure consistency and validity of the content.  The survey project was approved and supported by the TPC administration.  Two cohorts of cadets were informed about the project in advance, and the survey was conducted on scheduled dates in group settings.  Researchers explained the purpose of the project and emphasized the anonymous and voluntary nature of participation.  A total of 2,126 surveys were distributed, and 2,065 surveys were returned, which yields a response rate of 97%.  It is not uncommon having a high response rate in police survey studies in Taiwan, as Taiwanese police officers usually perceive being part of similar studies as an honor to help improve the system (Wu et al., 2017, Wang et al., 2024).  After removing problematic records, the final sample size is 2,050.

Measures

This study utilized a set of measures to assess the variables of interest.  Participants were asked to rate their agreement with each item on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).  The construction of these measures was validated through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the reliability of the measures was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.  Each measure’s Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.714 to 0.925, indicating satisfactory internal reliability.

Internal procedural justice (IPJ) was measured by seven items that assessed the degree to which cadets perceived equitable treatment from their instructors in the academy.  External procedural justice (EPJ) was measured by three items that gauged the extent to which cadets were instructed to uphold transparency, voice, trustworthiness, and accountability in police-citizen interactions.  Both IPJ and EPJ were adapted from a study conducted on Taiwanese police officers (Chen, et al., 2021).  The other two exogenous variables regarding police career motivations – public service motivation (PubSM) and instrumental motivation (InstruM) – were measured by three question items in each.

Cadet self-defined legitimacy (SDL) was identified as a mediating variable based on survey items utilized in a study by Gau and Paoline (2019).  SDL was measured using four items capturing cadets’ perceptions of their moral and ethical standing of exercising power.  School learning motivation (SM) was measured by four items that reflected cadets’ levels of active learning in TPC, as they interacted with instructors, peers, and contended with their individual learning modalities in the police academy.

Data Analysis

In the framework of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the statistical software MPlus was employed to analyze the survey data collected from the police cadets.  Two-step procedures were adopted to build the models.  Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was first used to validate the relationships between constructs and indicators used in the study.  Upon the completion of the measurement model, a full structural regression model was built to assess the direct and indirect effects hypothesized.  An array of fit indices, such as chi-square, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square (SRMR) were used to assess the fit of the models. (Kline, 2005).

Results

The results of CFA confirmed all theoretically driven question items significantly load on their corresponding latent factors (IPJ, EPJ, SDL, PubSM, InstruM, SM), and model fit indices demonstrated a satisfying measurement model.  Based on the modification indices, error terms of several indicators were specified to be correlated.  Next, the full model – structural regression model – also showed adequate data-model fit.

IPJ has a significantly direct and positive impact on police cadets’ inclination to exercise fair treatments when encountering citizens in the community (EPJ) (p < .001), so the first hypothesis is supported.  In addition, perceived internal procedural justice increases police cadets’ level of self-legitimacy (p < .001), which then turns into a greater level of EPJ (p < .001).  The second hypothesis is supported.  Next, when police cadets feel being treated fairly by instructors in the academy, they report a higher level of school learning motivation (p < .001), which also turns into a greater inclination of delivering procedurally fair treatments towards citizens (p < .001).  The third hypothesis is also supported.

Police cadets’ public service motivation (PubSM) has positive impacts on their self-legitimacy (p < .001) and school learning (p < .001).  Interestingly, police cadets’ instrumental motivation (InstruM) of joining police force increases their sense of entitlement to the public power (p < .001), but this type of motivation does not appear to increase their learning in the academy (p = .191).  Thus, the fourth hypothesis is partially supported.

Discussion and Conclusion

Aligned with prior studies among officers (Nix and Wolfe, 2017, 2018; Tankebe & Mesko, 2015; Yesberg et al., 2024), this study found a similar link between perceived internal procedural justice and self-legitimacy among police cadets. Cadets’ self-legitimacy partially mediated the relationship between internal procedural justice and the inclination to deliver fair treatment (Chen et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2024). In structured learning environments, motivated cadets further strengthened their self-legitimacy and commitment to procedural justice.

Police academies serve as the starting point of professional socialization, where cadets acquire legal knowledge, practical skills, and organizational values. Social learning occurs naturally through interaction with instructors. Our findings suggest this early stage plays a critical role in developing cadets’ sense of legitimacy, especially for those with strong public service motivation.

“Legitimacy is a judgement that legal authorities…are entitled to make and enforce rules” (Tyler, 2025:3). Our results support this notion, highlighting self-legitimacy as an internal mechanism shaped during academy training. While police academies balance traditional enforcement with evolving societal needs, cultivating legitimacy remains central to democratic policing. Without public cooperation, police cannot ensure public safety (Sunshine & Tyler, 2003).

Henson et al. (2010) noted that academy performance does not always predict effective policing. Future research should examine how training impacts field performance, especially regarding procedural justice. The implementation of procedural justice training remains a critical area for study.

Public service motivation has been consistently associated with positive police performance outcomes, including job satisfaction, community commitment, and resilience (Vandenabeele, 2008; Kim, 2012; Prysmakova & Vandenabeele, 2020). Our findings show that cadets with such motivation develop more effectively, even before becoming officers. “With public service in mind” likely remains essential for professions like policing. These insights are valuable to recruiters and counselors guiding young people into public service careers.

In sum, self-legitimacy and learning motivation are central to the development of procedural justice during academy training. Respectful treatment by instructors fosters cadets’ sense of rightful authority and commitment to fair treatment. While police work may offer instrumental rewards, public service motivation more strongly shapes cadet development and ethical orientation.